TRADITIONAL PHILOSOPHICAL THINKING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS
Generally speaking, traditional philosophical thinking in East Asia is rooted in ancient China thousands of years ago. During the period of Spring Autumn Warring States (770–221 BC), many different philosophical schools emerged in an age when old social rules (early Zhou dynasty 11th century – 771 BC) were collapsing and the search was on for new systems of thought to explain the resulting chaos (McGreal, 1995: 62). This era was named the ‘contention of a
hundred schools of thought’ (Chu, 1995).
Three major domains dominated traditional thinking and are relevant to management: Confucianism, Daoism, and War Strategies. One of the characteristics of Chinese thinking is that it does not divide the search for knowledge into separate and rigid categories with a separate set of principles governing each domain. Different philosophies benefit from each other and efforts to combine philosophical approaches are common.
A typical example of such efforts can be found in War Strategy and later Neo-Confucianism (AD 1130–1200). Confucius (Kongzi, 551–479 BC) developed a set of teachings based on absolute
respect for tradition (early Zhou Dynasty) and on a carefully ranked hierarchy founded on primary relationships between members of families and between the people and their rulers (De Mente, 1994). It has been seen as a philosophy guiding people’s daily life. The major ideas of Confucius were three basic guides (i.e. ruler guides subject, father guides son, and husband guides wife), five constant virtues (i.e. benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and fidelity), and the doctrine
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of harmony. Confucius believed that Ren or human heartedness/benevolence is the highest virtue an individual can attain and that this is the ultimate goal of education (McGreal, 1995). Ren is a strictly natural and humanistic love, based upon spontaneous feelings cultivated through education. The path to the attainment of Ren is the practice of Li. Li can be interpreted
as rituals, rites or proprieties. In its broadest sense, the term includes all moral codes and social institutions. In its fundamental but narrow sense, it means socially acceptable forms of behaviour (McGreal, 1995). In addition, Li involves the deliberate devices used by the intellectuals to educate people and maintain social order. Since Li is a term for moral codes and social institutions, people are tempted to think that the practice of Li (proprieties) is intended to enforce conformity with social order at the cost of individuality (McGreal, 1995). However, in Confucianism, an individual is not an isolated entity. Confucius said, ‘In order to establish oneself, one has to establish others. This is the way of a person of Ren’ (McGreal, 1995: 5). Therefore, individualisation and socialisation are two aspects of the same process.
The principle governing the adoption of Li is Yi, which means righteousness or proper character and is a principle of rationality. Yi is the habitual practice of expressing one’s cultivated feeling at the right times and in the right places. Confucius said: ‘Junzi (a perfect person or superior) is conscious of, and receptive to Yi, but Xiaoren (a petty person) is conscious of, and receptive to
gains’ (McGreal, 1995: 6). According to Confucius, the right method of governing is not by legislation and law enforcement, but by supervising the moral education of the people
(McGreal, 1995: 6). The ideal government for him is a government of wuwei (non-action) based on the solid groundwork of moral education. The reason given by Confucius is: ‘If you lead the people with political force and restrict them with law and punishment, they can just avoid law violation, but will have no sense of honour and shame. If you lead them with morality and guide
them with Li, they will develop a sense of honour and shame, and will do good of their own accord’ (McGreal, 1995: 7). This is the doctrine of appealing to the human heart: self-realisation toward external world peace (harmony) and a peaceful world and orderly society are the ultimate goal of Confucianism.
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Certainly, Confucianism dominated Chinese philosophy for many years. However, other philosophies before and after Confucianism were also influential, albeit with different emphases. Daoism is one of the other influential schools of thinking. The founding father of Daoism, Lao Zi (6th century BC–?) introduced the idea of yielding to the primordial ways of the universe
(Whiteley et al., 2000). Everything in the universe follows certain patterns and processes that escape precise definition and imprecisely this is called Dao, the ‘Way’ (McGreal, 1995: 9). In his work entitled Daode Jing (Classic of the Way and Its Power), Lao Zi claimed that De (virtue) cannot be strived for, but emerges naturally. The best ‘Way’ to act or think is wuwei (effortless activity).
However, the most important element of Daoism is the ‘Oneness’ and Yin- Yang. In Lao Zi’s work, he indicated that ‘Dao produces one. One produces two. Two produces three. And three produces ten thousand things (i.e. everything). The ten thousand things carry Yin and embrace Yang. By combining these forces, harmony is created’ (Daode Jing, Verse 42). These can be understood as the fundamentals of the universe that contains the polar complements of Yin
and Yang. Yin represents the dark, recessive, soft, feminine, low, contractive, centripetal, short, hollow, empty, and so forth, and Yang represents the light, dominant, hard, masculine, high, expansive, centrifugal, long, full, and solid. Nothing is ever purely one or the other; rather all things are in flux between one pole and its opposite (McGreal, 1995: 14).
De is the second important concept within Daoism. De, usually translated as ‘virtue’ or ‘power’, is an object’s personal stock of Dao, or, put another way, it is the natural potential or potency instilled within one. In contrast to Confucians who refer to De as a moral term, for Lao Zi De signifies natural abilities that enable things to be their best spontaneously and effortlessly
(McGreal, 1995: 13). Furthermore, Lao Zi argued that once ineffectual Ren has degenerated into rules, the conditions for conflict, rebellion and repression have emerged. Since rules advise doing something unnaturally through human intervention, there will always be someone who will refuse to comply. For a rule to remain meaningful and not become an empty rule, compliance must be enforced (McGreal, 1995: 13).
For Lao Zi, balance between the poles does not mean static parity, but a dynamic reversion that perpetually counterbalances all propensities toward one extreme or the o her. However, the world tends to favour the Yang while ignoring or denigrating the Yin. Daoism aims to rebalance this by emphasising Yin over Yang. In Daode Jing, Lao Zi claimed: ‘Human beings are born soft and flexible; when they die they are hard and stiff. Plants arise soft and delicate, when they die they are withered and dry. Thus, the hard and stiff are disciples of death; the soft and flexible are disciples of life. An inflexible army is not victorious; an unbending tree will break’ (Daode Jing, Verse 76). Therefore, Daoism provides enlightenment for human beings to understand and follow the fundamental cycle of the universe.
Bing Fa (War Strategies)
Bing Fa is a form of strategic thinking that was first developed for military purposes and has since been applied to almost all human interactions. It was written down by Sun Zi in the fourth century BC. In his book Sun Zi Bing Fa, Sun Zi discussed the five elements that must be considered in formulating a strategy (Chu, 1995: 25–30): (1) the moral cause: the Dao addresses the morality and righteousness of a battle; (2) temporal conditions: heaven is signified by Yin
and Yang, manifested as summer and winter and the changing of the four seasons; (3) geographical conditions: the earth contains far and near, danger and ease, open ground and narrow passes; (4) leadership: the commander must be wise, trustful, benevolent, courageous, nd strict; (5) organisation and discipline: organisation and discipline must be thoroughly understood. Delegation
of authority and areas of responsibility within an organisation must be
absolutely clear. The harmony of the five elements is of great importance to
success in any endeavour (Chu, 1995: 32). These elements are intangible,